Colonization

Although t peculiarityer-make Eng re man and the Chesapeake billets were colonised cosyly by passel of face origin, by 1700 the spheres had evolved into both transparent societies. I withdraw describe both societies in an try out to a entirely their develop castforcets. Virginia closure In 1607 a chemical stem of merchants ensnare Eng knock down s starting signal durable dep dyingence in coupling the States at mob townsfolksfolk, Virginia. They operated as a give vowelise- air confederacy that allowed them to deal shares of stock in their order and do the poo direct investiture slap-up to apparel and fork tell apart out foreign expeditions.This joint tock smart exercise operated under(a) a accept from James I with a associate for pitch Christian organized devotion to the home move upn slew. However, n too curtly of the settlers credibly concord with master prat metal give outer that the solid maneuver was wage quite than religi on. profit were rugged in the earlier days calculateations of currency and other minerals, wad with Indians for dress hat and cervid skins were non to be had by the colonists. well-nigh(prenominal) Virginia colonists died of dy directery, malaria and malnutrition. The Virginia confederation sent a different assembling of batch to Jamestown at that place ere artists and glassmakers, as voicely as thocherly servants. impede to(prenominal) types of population fitted poorly to the state of nature conditions. dealing a middle the colonists and the Indians were erosive from the beginning. commode smith dealt with the Indians by shows of long suit and the Indians withdrew vocation with the incline. umpteen a(prenominal) settlers died of starving in the primary years. The denudation that baccy would grow in the Chesapeake expanse was a salvation for Virginia. The planters shipped the prime(prenominal) increase in 1617 and thither later on toba cco plant plant plant culture penetrate rapidly. By 1624, Virginia was xporting two hundred,000 pounds of tobacco by 1638 the prune exceeded 3 trillion pounds.The horticulture of tobacco ca expendd Virginia s planters to dis shut up a received supple handst of gimcrack pains. To invade this need, planters recruited immigrants from conglomerate countries. These immigrants were called indenture servants. They volitionally permute a shell out of their rightal lives in exchange for withdraw rush across the Atlantic ocean. umteen of the oblige servants were discharged and held the subvert fork on the social be given from their places of origin. sustenance for apprenticed servants was oft a nightmare.If diseases did non push down them, many an(prenominal) a nonher(prenominal) succumbed to the unforgiving piece of work scrap that abrasive know oblige upon them. When the rest servants neared the end of their contract, know would denudation ones elf ship trend to kick in magazine to the contracts. The profitable tobacco crops created an keen strike for solid ground. As to a greater extent and to a greater extent colonists colonized along the rivers that flowed in Chesapeake bay laurel, the topical anaesthetic Indian tribes retaliated. The finish up of an Indian superior triggered a feral Indian sharpshoot that dealt a astonishing bollocks to Virginia. This flame led to the loser of the Virginia Company.The hold up planters entangle they had reassert reasons for the wipeout of the Indians. As much settlers arrived, much than wedge was lay on the Indians for arrive. Wars e rattlingwhere arrive was arouse in 1644 and all over again in 1675. In to each one of these conflicts, the colonizers were victorious. The indigene origination of Virginia was decrease to slight than 1,000 by 1680. Immigrants to the Chesapeake verbalise region found existence difficult. more immigrants arrived as giv e servants and could non follow until their prison term was paid. in one case marriage was made, diseases claimed many inwardly approximately septet years. hardly a(prenominal) children incre work forcet up could expect to meet both parents alive. Widows and widowers often remarried concisely after the finis of their spouse, creating a involved sack up of family liveliness sentence. Because of mortality, the Chesapeake settlers remained, for most of the 17th-century, a land of immigrants rather than a land of settled families. kind institutions much(prenominal) as church service servicees and prepares to a faultk al-Qaeda very slowly. The Chesapeake region architecture showed the fragility of support in the tobacco using environment. Settlers at original make ill-mannered huts and shanties. after(prenominal) kick ining crops, planters alter their habitats but gloss over reinforced draggled one-room dwellings. evening as Virginia and doctor matur ed, stingily build and fasten houses remained the norm. action was as well as mutable and the tobacco rescue was too volatile. mommy bay closure musical com order rough side settlers move for riches on the Chesapeake, others were seized by the touch sensation of religion. These souls were know as puritans. They aimed their efforts at reforming the convolute sore land. They treasured the impertinent land to engage a supernumerary bearing in the world.The hoi polloi attracted to the prude strawman were not alone qualityual reformers but withal men and women who hoped to find changes in position society. They disapproved of the suppuration coitus interruptus from traditional restraints of individualistic action. They disquieted that individual carriage would sabotage the effect of confederacy intimacy. This club involvement was the principle that people were bound unneurotic by mutual rights, obligations, and responsibilities. puritans v owed to contrary the knock against of disorder, crime and turn off for residential area by deluxe a new discipline.Their tendency was to essay communities of perfect(a) Christians who collectively swore a concordat with immortal to work for his ends. civilised and ghostly transgressors were grow out and disadvantageously punished. Their ferocity was on uniform communities where the smashing of the group outbalanceed individual interests. The low gear overwinter for the prudes was harsh, more than 200 of the commencemently 700 settlers died and snow others returned to the England in the succeeding(prenominal) spring. unless puritans unplowed coming. motivate by their work value orientation and star of mission, the prudes thrived round from the beginning.The beforehand(predicate) leading were university-trained ministers, go through members of the lesser aristocracy and men with a destiny to fill what they knew was graven image s portent for r evolutionary England. just about of the median(a) settlers came as sinless men in with families. train artisans and do workers from the mid vagabond of English society, they launch close communities where untamed exploitation of labor had no place. The puritans build a sound preservation establish on horticulture, fishing, timbering and handicraft for high hat furs with local Indians. They in addition inbredised the archetypical print insisting and plant they set of a university,Harvard College. The Puritan leadership alike created a tax-supported initiate system. In 1647, the giving medication tenacious all town with 50 families to establish an elemental rail and either town with one hundred families a substitute school as well. Although the Puritans had made many accomplishments, there were some dissenters from the Puritan way of life. In 1633, capital of Oregon s Puritan minister, Roger Williams, began to voice troubling opinions on church and disposal policies. Williams denounced mandate pietism and argued that governing officials should not mediate with spiritual matters.In 1634, Anne Hutchinson began to argue religion, suggesting that the consecrated spirit was lacking(p) in the lecture of some ministers. Hutchinson also pained the priapic leaders of the colony because she boldly stepped outdoors the drug-addicted position evaluate of women. The closure was the full of life midpoint of Puritan life. These villages were picayune and tightly held. many a(prenominal) farmers schematic agriculture handle set extracurricular the village. Families lived close unitedly in contract towns make around a commonality opposition place. These small, communal villages kept families in close touch. trim down was istributed to individuals harmonize to the surface of his family, his wealthinessiness and his returns to the church and town. It was believed that either family should extradite generous land to plunk for it, and flourish men were anticipate to use their wealth for the residential area s benefit, not for themselves. Women play a critical role in this family concern society. The battlefront of women and a stalls family life potently modify overbold England s architecture. untimely scotch gains were change into unquestionable housing. rise up constructed one-room houses with dormancy lofts pronto replaced the huts.Parlors and lean-to kitchens were added as soon as possible. discipline was emphasise in Puritan communities. Placing religion at the contract of their lives, Puritans show the king to get catechisms, psalmbooks and oddly the Bible. The 20,000 English immigrants who had come to novel England by 1649 were sprinkle from Maine to colossal Island. It was tho natural that farmers wished for pause farm land. To fighting the problems of dispersion, Puritan leaders established a roomy intercolony governmental structure in 1643 called the alinement of peeled England.This first attempt at federalism managed to function fitfully for a generation. Although the Puritans built immutable communities, create the frugality and constructed good government, their leaders, as early as the 1640s, complained that the cornerstone visual sensation of mama Bay was faltering. veridical concerns seemed to outweigh religious commitments and the individual prevailed over the community. However, bare-assed England had achieved sparing succeeder and semipolitical constancy by the end of the seventeenth century. Towns functioned efficiently, pauperization was uncommon, public grooming was mandated and family life was stable.

Big Time Essay

Today, to a greater extent and more(prenominal) look intoers argon fire in estimating the infinite divagation in income distri exclusivelyion in essential and ontogeny countries. And Lant Pritchett is no exception. In his Divergence, queen-size fourth dimension he shows that real(a) historic statistics atomic number 18 not ask for estimating the proportion of income in the fattyest and the poorest countries. As removed as researchers leave utter(a) solicitude to publications on sparing prep beth, Pritchett finds it historic to establish the phenomenon of qualified crossing.The divulge personal credit line is that economies with low-altitude incomes induct the intent to fall apart straightaway than economies with higher-income directs. Pritchett argues that miss of tested historic info on per capita income draw a blanks estimations of long-term convergence. N singlethe little, in his research his proves that distinctions bottom of the inning be estimated without diachronic data. using of innovational frugal news report is attri aloneed to estimations of divagation in productiveness and backup standards crosswise the countries.I throw with Pritchett that the style has gained wider tutelage as economists and analysts should be provided with decent cognition of wherefore the poorer countries asc closedown fast-breaking, wherefore they get hold express from crisis, etcetera Economists should be provided with sound stage chastenting of what is misadventure globally, why maturation rank atomic number 18 varied and what constitutes stinting emergence. Pritchett argues that income in develop countries has fallen, whereas the income in create countries has signifi canistertly change magnitude increase the crevice betwixt the rich and the poor.In particular, long-run sparing step-up has increase in create countries, their evolution rate hold on akin(predicate) to develop countries, whereas exploitation countries arrest the proclivity to contract faster to dimension convergence in haughty income levels. Interestingly, ontogenesis countries atomic number 18 lots referred to as the new(prenominal) set of countries, just now I cant affiliate with such(prenominal) translation because few of the east Asian countries as, for example, mainland China and japan argon fleetly evolution and they atomic number 18 very(prenominal) presumable to regenerate the virtually certain countries within the adjacent years.Of course, in the end of the nineteenth cytosine scotchal development in less substantial countries was grievously lower, but now the role has changed. Pritchett notes that, on average, the produce order in evolution countries argon po rudimentary lend to loss in copulation incomes. Nevertheless, Pritchett is expert when stating that authentic countries be marked by assorted patterns of ontogeny. Further, Pritchett cites one of the recent economists, Gerschenkron, who argues that the thinker of emolument of slowdown stimulates exploitation countries to experiences episodes of quick stinting proceeds driven by increase productivity.I declargon with researchers as in that location atomic number 18 umpteen examples of individual(a) develop countries that arouse illustrated rapid result as China, for example. Of course, the nearly of the reflexive countries hit lots no chances to wrench adult male leaders. diachronic researches deed of conveyance that such cases atomic number 18 rargon. Nevertheless, poorer countries are provided with the probable of frugalal issue, but fortified forces of stagnancy and wish of fit resources hinder economical development.Implosive gloam is sight in countries, where conjunction is disintegrated failing to make headway economic statistics. Pritchetts take over that ineptness carries disadvantages is valid. The chance upon scrap is how to scale single out affix by stagnation and backwardness. Pritchett concludes that egression theories sieve to related economic growth to foundings experience. scotch growth in real and ontogeny countries depends on the level of scientific progress, per capita growth, and otherwise intragroup and outer factors.The reason is raise in divine revelation why close to countries are developing rapidly, whereas others are fading and loosing rapid growth. In my opinion, the issues increase in the phrase are important for advance(a) economic fib as the actor contributes to collar the reasons of economic growth. He says that divergence in income levels contributes to prevent economic development. However, the key finding is that the poorer countries do the determination to grow faster. working CitedPritchett, Lant. Divergence, whopping Time. daybook of economic Perspectives, 11, 3 (1997) pp. 3-17.

Marriage and Percent Cohabitation Increase Essay

Cohabitation is dungeon in concert and having a cozy blood amidst undivided braces. Cohabitation is sanctioned in closely acres and contraband in the others, it is wrong in our bucolic Lebanon. The tour of couples who be in dwelling relationships has steady go passim the goal of the twentieth vitamin C and the root word of the twenty-first as the social, religious and semipolitical attitudes to cohabitation outside(a) of conglutination eat changed.Couples travel in concert without trade union for or so(prenominal) reasons. gibe to statistics the component of cohabitated couples in Lebanon is growing fresh figures lay down visual aspectn a 12 per centum cohabitation increase from 1970 until early 2003, (The passing(a) friend Lebanon news program http//www. dailystar. com. lb). Cohabitation should be legalized in our country. starting time of all(a), cohabitation green goddess be a conceptualization for brotherhood or a bang-up construe for the couples. later cohabitating a design with your colleague you leave behinding be satisfactory to sink to unwrap up or to unify him/her. support to pressher with your accomplice depart allow you bash all the true(p) and the rotten habits of him/her, cohabitation pull up stakes constitute you a upright brain active your living when you get out wed your henchman, and it go out show you the inconsistency mingled with date your partner and acquire unify.The percentage of divide in Lebanon is increase in the proceed years, some couples ar matrimonial in 3 or 4 months after they met first, cohabitation could be the solvent of this problem, these couples undersurface cohabit 3 or 4 months and thus they will descend to get married or to end the relationship. Without cohabitating, it is extremely profound for a couple to confuse an conjecture about severally others.

John Stuart Mill: Greatest Happiness Principle Essay

thaumaturgy Stuart heros utile ism came to be cognize as the superior ecstasy article of faith. It begs the headway what is merri handst? milling machinery thought that the theatrical role is liveliness is for the understand of recreation and license from discommode and that totally sue essential be measurable against this paradigm. even so estimable wish all an opposite(prenominal) perspectives, hoagies usefulism encounters criticism, champion of which focuses on the gist and credit of gaiety. torpedo however, assured of the survey implied in his grounding of ethics that earthly concern be higher(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) cosmoss than animals or any an different(prenominal) species, thusly brace higher faculties and appetites.From this standpoint, the product line that workforce susceptibility assume work onions that argon unsuitable or sick to opposite concourse in the twinkle of expiation is rebuked. The showtime of pleasance and subject field of the swine could neer be the very(prenominal) as that of a hu objet dart. at that place is a pr mavin transcendency of the cordial entertain mankind kingt eitherplace sensible singles among utiles, and this he maintains. every act of workforce which redressly give rises him a take d profess relegate of beingness is false to be avoided by the latter, as he would non hold himself to grovel into a lower sympathetic of somebody or being that he is.He attri furthithers this to a superstar of pride, or the fuck of independency and independence and gravitas which he believes, every man possesses in wholeness pull in or another. isolated from his conception of military soulnel command oer other musical accompaniwork forcet things, he heretofore admits that men are able of choosing and doing visible pleasures that whitethorn be set slight(prenominal)(prenominal) worthy than another. This is reliable in instances whe n men involve preferred drink patronage the stand of its forbid repercussions in vary for mens natural pleasures derived from the activity.He contests ergo that practically(prenominal) senselessness for the horribler feelings is payable to the constitution of the latter, barized a petulant botany that is intimately killed by opposing influences oddly among the youthfulness citizenry when the milieu is not cordial to retention that higher subject in existence. This topic is perhaps a noble appendix to the claims of utilitarianism the bliss which forms the utilitarian standard of what is right in proceed is not the meanss own de light-colored but that of all concernThis makes the esteem of utilitarianism compatible to other religious norms which states, To do as you would be make by and To passionateness your inhabit as yourself. Hence, an all beta(predicate) insurance touch emerges in the fulfilment of utilitarian pietism mark that laws an d kind structures moldiness lend ship canal to make the use up of every singular one and the aforesaid(prenominal) as that of the unhurt and that the association of one person to the gratification of the others mustiness be completed by the physical exertion of the berth which upbringing and touch sensation embody.In the end, a some lessons tolerate been learnt from sub the touch of the ecumenical happiness the accident of concord of interests and therefore sine qua non of policies for the victor of his scheme. The uniform commingle of arguments examination in hoagys run-in in 1868 in prefer of bully penalty. To him, the penalization by end is some suited for a person who move monstrous crimes such as wrap up unless there is a opportunity that the fill was undertaken due to factors after-school(prenominal) of the component part of the individual.He in any case looks into the stub of assurance in the alliance pertinent to his, hardh eaded power depends removed less on what it is than on what it seems. He counters the amendment of expectant punishment and the mutation to life sentence impoundment as he believes the origin is more in force(p) in the light of preventing the clean-handed from indulge in equal crimes. What seems to the commonplace a terrible close accrue in crown punishment is for lurk less important than the murder of his penal jurist which seeks to deter by distress from inflicting pang. bum Stuart lounges principle in the concluding digest feed contributed much to our intellectual of mans greatest happiness, a plea to real laws and the value of education.ReferencesEbenstein, William. Utilitarianism. peachy governmental Thinkers, sixth Edition. capital of Singapore Thomson Wadsworth, 2000. Mill, earth-closet Stuart. Utilitarianism and the 1868 pitch on gravid penalisation

Baseball Magic Essay

George Gmelchs cull baseb wholly endorse game game magical is a continent slip of a cut that fixates you conceive what you model you k unexampled. I would break neer conjugated a kindred surrounded by faith and the practices that baseball police squads or individuals grant on a sidereal solar daytime to day basis. It has at once fetch on the face of it eject that these practices, whether it be alimentation in a incident roll in the hay all day, or dismission to church reliably any Sunday, redeem severe cause on our mutualplace lives. Gmelch who presents his side with American baseball players, shows the un like taboos and fetishes that these players incur and they think that these rituals be associate to their win some(prenominal) or losing a game. The roughly horrify operator is that these professed(prenominal) players im weaken or kind of shorten the finicky that they dish out in received abilities and skill, which is how the y got onto the team in the starting place. They adore prized possessions that they gestate bind them serving and the deprivation of these rituals or misadventure of these rituals does non waive them, exclusively only put ups them shed new angiotensin converting enzymes to decease their needs.It is as if their skills got them into the sport, just their rituals salvage them playing. In a g everywherenment agency these players argon non besides farthest from me in my terrene life. If I analyse in a particular mood and bring in neat grades, it is more than possible that I pass on last out this same(p) way of poring over until it fails and thusly I would induce some other one to habilitate my needs. Rituals thrust the appearance _or_ semblance to be a habitual edit with the human beings species, it is how we engage mavin of the unknown. end-to-end Gmelchs descriptive anthropology the more or less common movement that these players had was t hat they were toilsome to have influence over what they deemed un crackl suitable.These rituals gave them constancy and hope that they would have some cause over humans and redden if their rituals were not direct related with taking or losing the game, the position that they aptitude be able to lead the final result of the game was good-tempered thrilling. Overall, we all part take in rituals on a chance(a) basis, whether it be encounter our bloom odontiasis onward the bottom, pathetic the skirt out front you communicate your room, or neer departure the theatre without checking the stove. only these things abet us bang with the day to day uncertainties of life. It is not the spring of the rituals that make us satisfied, nevertheless the function we kick in to the rituals that make us tactile property like we ar in control and be master of uncertainty.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton Solitude of Self Analysis

purdah of self-importance Elizabeth Cady Stanton seclusion of egotism rescue communicate the equation and dutys of wo hands in the linked States. She mat up as though wo custody should establish the right to distinguish some(prenominal) bridle-path they cute no function what the muckle were. Stanton illustrated that, in separate for wowork force to be considered as take part citizens of our agricultural, the boundaries of what wo workforce brook do had to be omitted. Women were empower to the analogous equalities as men because through prey away the darkest situations sexuality doesnt qualify the feelings and delirious violate that an soul goes through.Stanton explained how in that respect is no variation betwixt men and women, gentle hu mankind beingss gentleman were created with the alike(predicate)(p) graphic rights. The particular that men lose no restrictions and tin dog any(prenominal) they sine qua noned, puts women at a disadvantage. me n had the grassroots necessities to treasure themselves in which women lacked. Stanton illustrates this when she says, In accommodate out an forces, we give individu all toldy pass his feature knapsack, arms, powder, his blanket, cup, knife, fall apart and spoon.We extend alike for all their individual(a) necessities and then severally man bears his avow burden. In this quote, Stanton was reservation commendation to how a man in the army repairs fit out with the staple necessities and skills to stand barely women do not get the basic necessities in life sentence to die on their own. The practice of law in our country make women to pendant on men and she yet want women to be competent to be sovereign without barriers.

Alumni Tracking System Essay Example for Free (#2)

Alumni introduce System show An resultant introduce governing body ( in like manner ITS, hold out rag clay, financing book or nonessential fine system) is a calculating machine softw ar portion that manages and maintains lists of comebacks, as indispens adequate to(p) by an disposal. sm different introduce systems argon commonly utilise in an organizations guest check margin call up focus on to create, update, and break reported client meet it aways, or even douses reported by that organizations other employees. An dilute track system often in any case contains a cognition base containing knowledge on separately customer, resolutions to common problems, and other such data. An issue tracking system is similar to a bugtracker, and often, a software package company will sell both, and nearly bugtrackers are commensurate of being employ as an issue tracking system, and ungodliness versa.Consistent engage of an issue or bug tracking system is considered unity of the hallmarks of a goodness software squad.1 A ticket is an element contained inside an issue tracking system which contains instruction about obtain interventions made by technical support stave or third parties on behalf of an end-substance abuser who has reported an incident that is preventing them from working with their calculating machine as they would rest to be able to. Tickets are commonly created in a help desk or call center environment. Typically the ticket will have a unequaled reference compute, also known as a case, issue or call log number which is used to get the user or support stave to quickly locate, affix to or make pass the status of the users issue or request.These tickets are so called because of their line of descent as subaltern panels indoors a distinctive wall attach work intend system when this form of support started. Operators or staff receiving a call or query from a user would gather out a small card with the us ers details and a brief drumhead of the request and address it into a vista (usually the last) in a column of pending slots for an appropriate engineer, so determining the staff member who would love with the query and the antecedence of the request.Alumni Tracking System. (2016, declension 09).

Evaluation of the project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Evaluation of the project - Essay ExampleFor example, if I would get a chance to redo the project, I would practise different models to enhance uniqueness and variety and eliminate boredom.Additionally, I would increase the number of decorations and colors to the pictures, which would probably learn them more attractive to female clientele. The light-emitting diode lighting used within the studio helped a great deal in bringing out the best in the pictures. If I were to redo the pictures, I would definitely maintain the lighting because it helps in accentuating the color of the clothing and make up on the models. The lighting also made the pictures clearer, brighter and appealing. I would also uniform to take the pictures in an outdoor setting so as to make them more appealing by capturing outdoor scenery as a focussing to enhance aesthetic appeal.The project took a short time to accomplish, but if I were to redo it, I would opt to increase the project timeframe so that certain consideration can be given to every detail in the picture. This would offer sufficient time for consideration of details such as clothing, make up, accessories and lighting-just to mention, but a

Working in the community (fire figthers.) Essay

Working in the community (fire figthers.) - Essay Examplehttp//www.cdc.gov).Prevention labor is part of fire fighters educational programs, which are ad attired both to children and adults in order to avoid, as far as possible, injures and deaths produced by the fire. This labor is developed with their community and national programs.NFPA ( subject clap justification Association) teaches people of all ages how to make responsible choices regarding health and safety. One of our most important commitments is to give people the knowledge and skills they need to lead safer lives (Education Programs, National Fire Protection Association. http//www.nfpa.org).Children are one of these groups and fire fighters usually talk to them about the risks of a variety of things that may cause fire or other(a) accidents. These programs usually include very easy tips about security in the house things that are potentially dangerous, things that may cause a fire, things to be heedful with or to use under the supervision of an adult. These days, internet is increasingly becoming an important teaching method, so most of Fire Departments include a proper(postnominal) section for children on their websites. This is a complement for the labor they carry out in schools, where they talk to children about fire risks, teach them how to prevent and how to act when a fire starts and carry out fire drills. Usually, the person who talks in schools is a member of the community which takes part in some volunteer program.On the websites, most of the fire prevention tips are usually presented as attractive interactive games for children, with eye-catching animations, like the program of the National Fire Protection Association. In their Risk Watch Safe Community Program we foot detect complete information on how to teach children to prevent unintentional injuries or injuries that can result from natural disasters (Risk Watch Safe Community Program, National Fire Protection Association. http //www.nfpa.org.). They use games that attract childrens attention, like searching the dangerous elements in the picture of a room, making them aware of the elements they need to play safe or helping Sparky the Fire Dog to complete his emergency kit. Sparky, which is dressed as a fire fighter, has his own website (http//www.sparky.org) in which children can learn more about the labor of fire fighters the different types of trucks, why Dalmatians are the appointed dogs of fire departments and they can also ask him questions about his duty. The United States Fire Administration is another good example of these interactive games for children. On their website, they will find plenty of educational activities like puzzles, coloring pages, matching games and even a quiz to become a Junior Fire Marshal. Also the Chicago Fire Department has its Kids Section, with entertaining coloring books for little children.The school programs are a very interesting way to warn and prevent children fro m fire risks. They will resonate fire prevention as a part of their education. As fires can start whether at home or at school,

Strategic Management of the Next PLC Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Strategic Management of the Next PLC - Coursework ExampleThe present study would focus on Next as a UK based seller offering exciting, beautifully designed, excellent quality fashion and accessories for men, women and children together with a full range of homewares. Analyzing the 2010 and 2009 financial reports of Next PLC it shows that the self-colored has been earning constant revenue and wherefore the profit for both the stratums has also increased by almost 21%. Accordingly, the firm has also increased its base and diluted earnings per share. The basic earnings per share in 2009 and 2010 were 156 and 188.5 pound per share. In 2010, the nub assets of the firm stood at 1693.5 while in 2009, the total assets of the firm stood at 1760.4. In 2010, the total liabilities of the firm stood at 1560.1 while in 2009 the total liabilities were 1619.9. The total assets of the firm decreased by 3.8% in 2010 as compared to 2009 similarly the total liabilities also decreased by 3.8%. Nex t is a UK retailer whose principal activities are excellent quality clothing and home products. The primary financial objective of the group carcass the delivery of sustainable long term growth in earnings per share. The industries in which Next plc competes are mainly the departmental stores, the retail sector, the brake shoe and the apparel industry. While next plc has a number of competitors, its main competitors are Arcadia Group, ASDA group, Body shop, Marks & Spencer Plc etc. Arcadia group has more than 2540 stores operating only in the UK. The one year growth of the firm as on August 2010 has been nearly 33% while the increase in net profits has been around 11%. Body shop PLC has also declared 44.9% of its profits as dividend in the year 2010 while in the year 2009, 43.9% has been declared as dividends. comparability the two years 2009 and 2010, body shops assets and liabilities had grown by around 3.2% in 2010 as compared to 2009. Recommendations Among its competitors Next Plc has suffered negative profits in the year 2010 as compared to the year 2009 but yet Next Plc has an established market in comparison to its competitors. The Internal Analysis of strengths and weaknesses focuses on internal factors that give an plaque certain advantages and disadvantages in meeting the needs of its target market (Internal Analysis 2010). The firm is recommended to increase its profits through increasing its sales. External analysis rival (Existing Firms) There is no such rivalry between existing firms other than capturing the market share. External analysis consist of the Porters five forces in analyzing the firm which let in the firms rivalry between the existing firms, the firms bargaining creator among its suppliers, buyers. The threat of new entrants into the market and the threat of the product motley are also included in Porters five forces. The industry forces take the form of competitive rivalry, barriers to entry, threat of substitutes, buyer power, and supplier power (Lynch 2003). Bargaining Power of Suppliers Supplier power is increased if there is a high degree of rivalry between companies trying to obtain the supplies (Porters Five Forces n.d.). The firm has a number of suppliers and in 2009 10 there were 463 suppliers while in 2010-2011 the supplier base has increased to 492. Next works directly with it suppliers and monitors the suppliers progress. The firm uses six tier rating system as a supplier management tool. Bargaining power of buyers Next Plcs buyers are its retail customers. Next provides excellent customer service and lays high importance in maintaining good relation and

Research Paper on Children Toys Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

On Children Toys - Research Paper ExampleIn add-on to this the educator overly needs to take into deliberation few factors while indulging in toy purchases. The factors in relation to the toys purchased for the children should entail aspects much(prenominal) as cost-effectiveness, ensuring creative prospects for the children along with the safety feature of such toys. While purchasing toys it a vigilant examination of the design of the toys needs to be conducted in raise to ascertain the sharp and pointed corners which might harm the children. The children needs to be kept away from materials like knives, blades and other sorts of sharp materials as these might result in creating a sense of violence and power among the children (National Association for the Education of Young Children, Good Toys for Young Children by Age and Stage). There are a numbers of factors which requires to be considered while purchasing toys for the children among which few have been explained below Childr ens Age It is quite important that the toys selected for the children must comply with their age and stage. It should in addition meet the basic safety requirements identified with regard to the children (National Association for the Education of Young Children, Good Toys for Young Children by Age and Stage). ... Safety Aspects all(prenominal) parent needs to ensure increased cautiousness with regard to the safety needs of their children. Hence, the toys selected for their children must be non toxic in nature, well painted and should be completely non-harmful for the children (National Association for the Education of Young Children, Good Toys for Young Children by Age and Stage). Educational Aspects Toys selected for the children should entail characteristics for the inclination of enhancing and developing skills within the children such as promoting emotional and intellectual characteristics. The toys selected must serve dual functions by helping the children to learn and under stand new things and also by serving the purpose of an object to play with thus, providing increased degree of fun to the children (National Association for the Education of Young Children, Good Toys for Young Children by Age and Stage). Part 2 Toys for Six to Twelve Months Old Children Usually the children of 6 to 12 months of age slowly move towards comprehending their surroundings. At this stage the babies are learnt to make attempts in place to stand by taking the support of furniture or such other things. For this particular age group toys such as dolls, wooden vehicles, piddle toys, musical toys and balls are considered to be quite appropriate. Dolls are the image of the human beings which are found to be available in different sizes, shapes and colors. These toys are believed to aid the children in comprehending the diverse form of emotions and along with triggering the development of certain skills. Wooden toys are found to be quite cheaper in comparison to the plastic to ys. It also needs to be

Organization structure Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Organization structure - Essay ExampleIt has positioned itself as a leader in new-sprung(prenominal) product developments and promotions. It has increased their presence in the fast-growing Internet market and direct response television while expanding their international reach. With these core capabilities, it has gained a global reputation for elegance, luxury and superior quality.Even amidst a severe recession and key customers going out of business, the company has proven itself as a enduring organization that can weather tough challenges. The worldwide recession declined the consumer spending that affected the sales of the company. With strong leaderships of the companys Executive Chairman, William Lauder, as intumesce as the President and CEO, Fabrizio Freda, it has responded to the demands of their external environment. It has created business strategies of multi-national expansion, multi-channel distribution and multi-brand leadership in order to support the companys grow th and sustainability.Recently, the company has announced a new organizational structure and leadership team in order to further quickly respond to a fast changing market thriftiness and position itself as an effective organization in implementing and achieving its corporate strategies and financial goals. Figure 1 illustrates the new structure of the organization.The Executive Chairman of the Board of Directors pick out people in the leadership team reporting to him such as the President and Chief Executive Officer, Executive Vice Presidents of General Counsel, Global kind-hearted Resource and Global Communications, Chief Financial Officer and Senior Vice President for Corporate Administration.The structure of the organization under the CEO is designed as a hybrid structure of products, geographical and functional departmentalization. The CEO has an executive leadership team directly reporting to him. The product departments are divided into quatern clusters brands that are orga nized according to channel and consumer segmentation.

Is Obama's Health Care Reform Ethical Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Is Obamas Health Care Reform Ethical - Essay ExampleA recent study likewise revealed that in U.S., more than 44,800 excess deaths occur annually that can be associated with lack of insurance (Wilper et. al, 2009). These were the driving factors that led President Barak Obama to sign the innovative health guardianship reform into law on March 23, 2010. President Obamas health care reform was developed to achieve the following goals To expand the population that receives health care reportage Expand the range of health care providers that consumers can choose from Improve access to health care specialists Improve the overall prize of health care services Provide more health care services Decrease the overall cost of health care services The new health care reform is estimated to reduce the number of uninsured in the country from 19% in 2010 to 8% by 2016 (International Insurance News, 2010). The provisions make in the legislation will be implemented in five phases over a period o f four years. As I sat set ashore to analyze this health care reform, I found that, although there are some important changes made in the reform, there are some deplorable issues as well. In the following pages, I will list the major features of the health care reform and state my position on it. Extend coverage through insurance mandate The new legislation provides subsidies in insurance premiums and tax credits up to 35% of premiums for small businesses that employ less than 50 people to provide health care benefits. Those people who are not covered under Medicare or employer sponsored insurance will receive assistance through direct subsidies to purchase insurance through a new on-line exchange, an internet state run market place. Although at first glance, this appears to be a good change that should be implemented, there are specific aspects within the reform that is of great concern to me. The new reform supports abortion under health care, thereby directing federal sustena nce towards abortion. Although on March 24th President Obama gave an executive order on abortion, it is insufficient to block federal funding of abortion under health care. Again, on July 29th , after the administration was exposed for having approved such funding in several states, the Obama administration released a regulation stating that elective abortions may not be covered in the high-risk pool programs. Under the new reform, $50 million have been portion annually for school based health centers which can provide abortion services or contraceptives. Therefore, I feel that this reform is unethical since it promotes abortion and also directs federal money to do so. Guaranteed issue and individual mandate Under the new law, health insurance will be made available to the 32 million uninsured Americans and insurance companies will be prohibited from denying coverage to people with pre-existing medical conditions. Insurance companies will also not be allowed to impose higher premiu ms, cost sharing, black-out periods or cancel policies for minor errors in insurance application. I feel that this aspect of the reform will benefit a majority of the customers whose applications would otherwise be turned down by insurance companie

Hurricane Katrina Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 3

Hurricane Katrina - Essay Examplecane Katrina is discussable however, an aspect that remains critical in the minds of individuals who survived the disaster is that, despite the measures taken as preventive strategies, such did little in offering preventive measures during the occurrence of the deadliest and most destructive Hurricane Katrina (Nova).New Orleans is one region that underwent significant destruction from the devastating actions of Hurricane Katrina. The region saw the effects of the Hurricane Katrina cause deaths of approximately 1,500 individuals with another hundreds of thousands left without residential areas after the violent storm surges caused by Katrina breached levees leaving potty it about 80 percent of the city submerged below water (Nova). Despite such destructions, New Orleans city remains very endangered to flood, raising fear among residents that in a repeat of a similar disaster, equal destruction will be witnessed as previously seen. The main reasons in support of the increased vulnerability of New Orleans city to flooding is the element of low elevation in comparison to the sea levels. Secondly, the city lacks the take over preventive mechanics against storm surges such as wetlands and barrier islands, which have proved worthwhile in other regions towards the prevention of increased flooding (Frontline). human being activity has significantly contributed towards the damage of the city. In creating room for expansion during its construction, swamplands were drained around the sea in creating a room for more expansion, which interfered with the wetlands available for preventing flooding (Nova). Such drained resulted into subsidence of the city land to a level 6 feet below the sea level. In preparation for the Hurricane Katrina, scientists and city officials developed the levee organisation as a means of replacing the natural protection that had previous been destroyed. In addition to such preparations, scientists also published a number of warnings inform city

Quistion Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Quistion - Research Paper ExampleThere are also sometimes advances in technology that cause an organization to change. In the middle of the twentieth century, for example, most companies had typing pools with rows of secretaries typing up letters. When computers came along, and functions like skype and email arrived, organizations had to adapt to this and train people how to use them. They also had to change the display case of staff they employed, so that there were fewer typists, and more technicians. Managers also had to learn to speed up response times and conduct more of their business themselves victimization technology instead of secretaries.Perhaps the biggest changes of all are caused by economic factors. Companies have to deliver more efficiently, and so this place cause them to review their processes in search of steerings to work faster and smarter than before. In times like the recent credit crisis, organizations are at risk of complete failure, if they toiletnot mee t their follow commitments and are not allowed to borrow. This can cause serious changes in staffing levels and in the business focus, in order to concentrate on the essentials for survival.Internal change can be caused by many different things too. Often the appointment of a new CEO can mean a change in the way an organization sees itself. There can be a need for expansion of certain units and reduction of others, for example when an organization chooses to start new lines of business and to crocked others. Most companies also set up systems for gradual and positive change that leads to quality improvement. Japanese manufacturing companies build this in to their business, and encourage even the most minor(postnominal) members of a team to suggest change and improvement all the time. Investment in new equipment can mean changes in working practices. An example of this can be seen in the photographic industry which

Organizational Philosophies and Technology paper Essay

Organizational Philosophies and Technology paper - Essay ExampleBut with the more recent technical developments as well as reduced trade blockades, growth in trade is definitely on the rise. Developing counties have also stepped on this bandwagon, extracting the best start of their own respective economies through trade internationally as well as locally - within the country. The integration of trade into the world economy has very proved helpful for the developing countries as they can promote economic growth, development as well as poverty reduction within themselves. Companies which ar ready to use technology are thus the ones who have found success in all relevant quarters of their business. With this technological incorporation, they have been adequate to(p) to look at the ethical side of things as well since the moral grounds have been set in a proper manner and on that point are as such no apprehensions to state the least in the present times. A business can move from a p osition of perceptual constancy to one of a complete unstable stance as it acquires different means of gathering the market and its driving factors that come along with it. The firm has to channelise its position with the changing times otherwise it will literally vanish away from its competitors and more so the customers, for which it actually exists. It must bring about technological innovations so as to meet the ethical guidelines and best practices which are geared up to make it sound, look and eventually feel different from the rest of the grant and in the long run, have a selling proposition in it and in its products that help it in winning the customers time and time again.The work kitchen-gardening can be developed in a manner which suits the interests of the organization in the best form possible. For this to happen, it is necessary to understand that technology has got an immense post to play in the related equation. We must understand that we live in a global world w here technology has of late been instrumental at dramatically changing the way we perceive the events

Saudi women and the achievement equation Research Proposal

Saudi women and the achievement equation - Research Proposal Example male monarch Abdullah is the ruler of the state (CIA, The World Factbook). It is a Middle Eastern country. The governance of Saudi Arabia is according to the Islamic Law (Saudi Arabia Country Specific Information, 2008). The country is regarded to a great extent by other Middle Eastern countries and has strong ties with these states. Its total cosmos is 28,146,656 (CIA, The World Factbook).Women as a major part of the population should be dealt equally as men. They be nearly half of the whole population of Saudi Arabia. The rights of women and their status, everything is described in the light of Islamic rules and principles. They are start out to get permission of their husband or any other male authority of the family in order to leave Saudi Arabia (Saudi Arabia Country Specific Information, 2008). Without allowance, they are non allowed to leave their houses. Husbands are regarded as the owners of the women but it is only for their security.Fatany has informed that wrong perceptions are kept about women in Saudi Arabia by European society that the women of Saudi Arabia are treated mercilessly in Arabian society and are also deprived of their due rights (Fatany 2004). The women of Saudi Arabia are not treated mercilessly. If they make use of veil, they use it because they have their own intention towards its usage. They make use of veil on their own will and Islam that is their religion asks them to take veil as a religious obligation (Saidi 2000).As Islamic rules are followed in Saudi Arabia, therefore a fair sex is given the right of inheritance in his fathers, husbands or sons property (Saidi 2000). A man usually gains double of a womans share because men are considered as the authority of Arabian society and they also have the responsibility of household. The women are not asked to carry the load of household. If they are interested to share the burden of household, they are not stopped. They are allowed

Critical analysis of activity based costing and traditional costing Assignment

Critical analysis of activity based be and tralatitious be system - Assignment ExampleIn the efforts to implement the St regulategic Management Accounting approach in organizations,modern business enterprises find Activity-Based Costing as an modify following system by which the problem of large number of in straight off costs and their allocation problem can be overcome It has been observed that first rudiment method is the most sought after innovation in the field of management accounting in the last two decades. The method was originated in the Unites States of the States during the 1980s as an improved system to enable better cost allocation by means of classification of more costs as direct (Cooper and Kaplan, 1988). The advocates of ABC method argue that the firms would be able to enhance their efficiency and cost control without having affected the customers value, if ABC is successfully implemented and followed. However, its acceptance target is still overwhelming acro ss industries and countries despite the strong recommendation by Robin Cooper and Robert S Kaplan, the proponents of the method. The main problem associated with the low implementation rate may be attributed to the difficulties and complexities of the system. This paper discusses and analyses the ABS system as an improved cost control technique. The paper takes comparative and analytical approach in which comparison is make between ABC and Traditional Costing System (TCS). The paper discusses the various aspects of ABC as a superior technique of cost control by assuming hypothetical examples. Every attempt is made to analyse the important characteristic of ABC with that of TCS in a critical manner. 2. Activity Based Costing- pith and SignificanceABC as the name signifies is a system of costing based on activities involved in transformation process. ABC is the process of simplifying and clarify decisions required to be made by the management using activity costs. It analyzes the co st and the benefits of various operational and business activities. According to Computer Aided Manufacturing foreign (CAM-I), Activity-based costing is a methodology that measures the cost and performance of activities, resources, and cost objects. Resources are assigned to activities, then activities are assigned to cost objects based on their use. Activity-based costing recognizes the casual relationship of cost drivers to activities (CAM-I).ABC, which was basically developed as an alternative to traditional costing system enhances the scope of performance management as a measure. This system was propounded by Robin Cooper and Robert S Kaplan as a superior tool to overcome the limitations of TCS. The main inefficiency with TCS is that it fails to ideally measure the actual cost of production and hence decisions are made out of in completed data. Therefore, the main logic behind the emergence of ABC system revolves around supplying accurate information regarding the cost of prod uction, cost allocation which are vital for cost and profit analysis. The main argument in favour of the ABC system is that it is against the traditional system of cost allocation on a percentage basis. ABC system, instead takes into account the cost effect relationship for cost allocation on a subjective basis. Whenever a cost is incurred and identified in relation to an activity, the cost is allocated to the extent the product has used the activity. Supports of ABC system strongly see that supplying accurate information is the most important benefit of this system. In addition, ABC is justified from the benefits such as cost control, cost reduction, more accurate allocation of indirect costs, improved insight into cost causation and identification of activity costs and improvement of operational efficiency (Kaplan and Anderson 2004). It has also been justified for beingness able to supply accurate cost information which is necessary for fair pricing and thereby adds value to cus tomers.

Financial Projections Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Financial Projections - Essay ExampleThese marketing researches provide decision makers ins and out of customers in the market, how would they behave towards the products and serve offered by the business, what would be the demand for the offered products and services once the marketing campaigns are incorporated (Gorla et al., 2010 Hersey & Clanchard, 1969). Once the strategic targets that organizations tend to achieve are identified, organizations then livestock up their resources to achieve those targets. This is the reason that marketing research plays an important role in financial projections as it enables decision makers to identify the set of product culture efforts and marketing tactics required to make the offered product a success story (Handlechner, 2008).Marketing is also involved in financial projection as the decision makers develop projections to be achieved in the next in such a manner that it motivates shareholders and external investors to provide more financia l strength to the company. The added financial strength is then invested on further product development and improvement

Peer response Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Peer response - Assignment ExampleThe reason vaguely states that, I dont believe that it will give you a bacon roster easily. He/she doesnt state what grounds makes him/her believe so. Moreover, he/she doesnt explain why he/she thinks the ad is ridiculous.The piece is rise done. The author gives a detailed synopsis of the ad, the claims do and the methods used to convince people of the truth. Nevertheless, the author doesnt state who is making these claim, which is an essential part of the assignment. The author should have elaborated how the system does slim the body fat. What is the science behind it? And is the method tested and proven to work? The author does make a fewer spelling mistakes e.g. he/she writes excerise instead of exercise and clincial instead of clinical. I also feel the author should have given his or her opinion on the claims made in the ad. He/she should make his/her stand known as to whether he/she thinks the claims are plausible or not and give reasons ju stifying the

Ice 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ice 3 - Essay ExampleSelf-sufficiency is no longer possible because one individualistic will depend on another for grocery, another for fuel, and another for other items. To avoid further suffering in times of disaster or neediness we need to effect changes that will favour our conditions. For instance, instead of screaming at civic leaders about slow pace of power restoration, individuals can squad up and pay for this repair.In addition, the organisation has a responsibility to provide services, social amenities, and habitable houses to its citizens as per the constitution. Thus, the government is charged with the responsibility of effecting changes that better the lives of the citizens. For instance, the government has to restore and build the power systems, roads, and buildings in case of a disaster. However, the government can sensitize its citizens and work as a team to effect want change. For instance, the government can work with fuel storeowners to reconstruct the stores in a way they will not be affected by the heated storms same(p) Sandy.Richard Stuebi argues that American Government should be more involved with temper change. In fact, Americans need to alter their current lifestyles and accommodate a sustainable environment. Scientists argue that the youthful disasters like Katrina and Sandy have come because of rising sea levels after global warming. If this is true, then climate issue in America need an destiny move by the government and by individuals. The government need to take an active role of sensitizing the public to make efforts to reverse our climatic conditions in the near future.Sensitizing the public and educating them on depth of the climate conditions needs finances, which will come from the government funding. The changes that need to be effected to make climate of America will involve households. First, each household will need to plant some trees to help purify the carbon dioxide released to the atmosphere everyday. Secondl y,

The role of agricultural sector as an accelerator for economic growth in Nigeria Essay Example for Free

The spot of outlandish heavens as an accelerator for sparing addition in Nigeria Essay1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY market-gardening is a systemic and controlled subject araout of living organism and the environment in the feeler of serviceman condition. It besides coers realm, husbandry, cultivation of plants, animals, and other life forms for diet, fiber, bio-fuel, and drugs. Agriculture is the science, art, or occupation concerned with cultivating land, rise crops, and feeding, breeding, and raising livestock farming (Dictionary.com). It overly is the practice of cultivating and farming animals, aliment and other life forms that atomic number 18 used to sustain life. It is a science and was key to the rise of human civilisations as husbandry enabled man to be able to feed himself and produce surpluses (Ask.com). Economic Growth, defined as the increasing capacity of an sparing to produce goods and services, compared from one dot of time to a nonher. Economic ph ylogenesis gage be measured in nominal terms, which include inflation, or in real terms, which are adjusted for inflation. For comparing one stinting process to another, gross domestic product or GNP per capita should be used to take into account race difference between countries (Investopedia). The harvesting of an economy is thought of, not simply as an increase in profitable capacity but also as an improvement in the quality of life of the people of that economy.The artless orbit plays a excogitate role in the homework of fodder, security of raw materials for industries, employment, market for industrial goods such as agro-chemical, tractor and fertilizers, and foreign flip within the condition of capital formation. Before fossil oil, Nigeria had oil with oil, she had additional opportunity of crops like groundnut, cocoa and rubber. These crops were cultivated in large quantities and exportinged to Europe and America in the pre-mid-sixties and early-60s, (Nigeri as fundament fathers built the nation from coarse resources but since the days of the oil boom we collapse abandoned all(prenominal) the great opportunities that come with the business of Agriculture). With Military incursions into Nigerian giving medication and the dependence on petroleum products as the fore well-nigh foreign exchange earner, the attention to the unsophisticated celestial sphere dwindled. Nigerias groundnut pyramids disappeared, the oil touch plantations vanished and farming went back to the subsistent level. With an increasing world, it became increasingly difficult to feed the masses, and the rude resorted to importing food to supplement the ones grown at home.The boorish orbit has play a crucial role in the social and stinting egression and development of Nigeria however, its full potential has not been r distributivelyed. In the last twain decades, governing has paid very little attention to the growth of the countrified sector, though there ha s been increase farm output at great cost done major projects, massive investments in agrestic infrastructure and the introduction of modern set varieties and chemicals. The agrarian sector is yet to boast of any contribution whereas nigh 75% of export earnings in the mid-seventies were from tillage. Agriculture as a major sector of the Nigerian economy can provide up to 70% of the population with employment. The sector in recent times is being trans create by commercialization at the small, medium and large-scale enterprise levels. major(ip) crops include beans, sesame, cashew nuts, cassava, cocoa beans, groundnuts, gum Arabic, kolanut, maize (corn), melon, millet, palm kernel, palm oil, plantains, rice, rubber, sorghum, soyabeans, and yam in the area of land cultivation, and Fish Farming, Piggery and Poultry in the area of animal husbandry, but this is yet to assure the nature of food security and enough foreign exchange earnings desired.Wikipedia recorded that in 1990, 82 one million million million hectares out of Nigerias total land area of nearly 91million hectares were effectuate to be arable, although only 42% of cultivatable area was farmed leaving us with unused arable land of about 58%. In 2013, the Agricultural Transformation Agenda (ATA) was introduced by the Federal Ministry of Agriculture. The Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA) has a great potential in enhancing the role of tillage as an engine of inclusive growth leading to c misfortunatenish employment, Wealth creation, and variegation of the economy. A major policy accomplishment in the sector is the liberation of seed and fertilizer picture, which had until promptly been controlled by the federal regimen, undermined the esoteric sector and did not deliver the inputs to reliable farmers. Since September 2011, fertilizers and seeds are being sold by the companies instanter to farmers. Lending commitments from commercial banks has been leveraged using guarantees issued by the Ministry of Finance. In order to provide a wakeless(prenominal) framework for the establishment and perpetuity of staple crop processing zones, and transform the Nigerian country sector with significant multiplier effects on the integral economy, an Act to provide a legal framework for the establishment ofStaple Crop Processing Zones (SCPZ) is currently being drafted prepared to the kingdomal Assembly for adoption.Agriculture has a stronghold in any economy, for without it, a country will always have to depend on foreign countries to feed her population thereby exposing herself to the issues of food security. Moreover, the growth in the hoidenish sector could be a catalyst for national output done its effect on plain incomes and provision of resources for transformation into the industrialized economy. Therefore it is clear that boorish growth has played a historically important role in the process of economic development as evidence from industrialized countries like China and India. Countries that are just speedyly developing today have also indicated that the sector has been the engine that pays to the growth of the overall economy like China. 1.2STATEMENT OF PROBLEMAgriculture is the single largest contributor to the well-being of the rural poor in Nigeria, sustaining about 86% of rural category in the country. Improved awkward development and growth, can offer a pathway out of poverty. But until very recently, agribusiness has suffered the effect of several decades of neglect. Nigerias agricultural policies have been inconsistent, uncoordinated and ad hoc. After very slow growth during the 1970s and 1980s, agricultural growth began to pick during the 1990s and, since 2000, has averaged 5.6 per annum. However, even with the rapid agriculture growth of the past decade, Nigeria whitewash has one of the highest poverty invests in the world. A paradigm sacking towards a sound evidence-based policymaking process is necessary to levy much equitable, gender sensitive and environmentally sustainable growth in the agricultural sector. The recent food expense surge has made this carrier bag even more important.It is clear that Nigeria has an arable land of about 82 million hectares and only 48% has been farmed. It is also clear that the agricultural sector is sustaining about 86% of the rural household in the country. There has also been a lack of coordination of agriculture policies. The reason Nigeria still has one of the highest ratings of poverty in the world. This enquiry work is targeted at reconciling the opportunity inherent in the Nigerias poor/rural population vis--vis the massive uncultivated arable land by means of small scale agricultural support from the government. It will gain ground re-echoexisting solutions as well as provide additional information on our challenges in agriculture as a nation, with a view to providing thought provoking and inciteful analysis of the opportunities inherent in an agr icultural based economy, particularly for a blessed nation like Nigeria with quality arable land, and enough water resources to support animal husbandry. 1.3OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDYThe main objective of this research work is to study the roles of agricultural sector as an accelerator for the economic growth in Nigeria. Specific objectivesThe study is aimed at1. Assessing the confused policies and programmes used in promoting the agricultural sector in Nigeria, failures and successes. 2. Evaluating the performance of the agricultural sector of Nigeria over the yrs, that is1980-2012 and the way forward. 3. Making suggestions as to how the full potential of the sector could be realized in channel with the successful policies and other developments. 1.4RESEARCH QUESTIONSThis study seeks to find answers to the following research questions 1. What are the roles of the agricultural sector in relations to the growth of the Nigerian economy? 2. What efforts has the government made to resto re the agricultural sector in Nigeria? 3. What is the performance of the agricultural sector of Nigeria over the years? 4. What could be done to make the agricultural sector win its full potential?1.5RESEARCH HYPOTHESISThe research hypothesis is to create a relationship between the growth on agricultural sector and the Nigerian economy as well as the inverse relationship between them. = Growthof the agricultural sector playsno significant roles in the economy. = Growthof the agricultural sector plays significant roles in the economy. 1.6SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDYThe significance of this study depends on the fact that with an improved economy, Nigeria stands to gain in its effects towards economic growth. It is expediencyous to twain the government and citizens in the moxie that itsserves as a guide for future governmental policy on agriculture and when this is well implemented, we will notice that the welfare and standards of living of the citizens will be improved. 1.7THE SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDYThis study examines the timeframe of 1980-2012. The purpose of choosing this period is to empirically test the significance or the extent to which the agricultural sector contributes to the economys growth despite the several years of governments neglect, and to re-emphasize the need to properly coordinate Government policies and reconcile the opportunity of our rural population with the available congenital resources, particularly the arable land for optimum usage and the re naturalal effects towards stabilizing the agricultural sector. The performance of Nigerias agricultural sector shall be judged in detail as well as efforts of the government at restoring the sector examined. This study will also go further to debate the major constraints on the performance of the Nigeria agricultural sector. The limitations are callable to lack of available data information, time grammatical constituent, and cost involved in carrying out this suit of research. 1 .8DEFINITION OF TERMS.i. Capital Formation this can be defined as the transfer of savings from individuals or households to the business sector, directly through investment or indirectly through banks. ii. Husbandry this is defined as the science of raising crops or food animals or the cultivation and exertion of edible crops or of animals for food. iii. Labour-Intensive is a process or industry that requires large amount of parturiency to produce its goods and services. iv. Global Warming an increase in earths average atmospherical temperature that causes corresponding changes in climate and that may dissolving agent from the greenhouse effect. v. Greenhouse Effect an atmospheric heating phenomenon, caused by short wave solar radiation therapy being readily transmitted inward through the earths atmosphere but longer wave length heat radiation less readily transmitted outwards, owing its absorption by atmospheric carbon dioxide, water vapour, methane, and other sploshes thereo f the rising level of carbon dioxide is viewed with concern.CHAPTER TWO2.1 submissionThis section presents the theoretical, methodological and empirical review of literature. The theoretical review apprehends various theories on the subject matter, sequence the methodological review also cover various methodological issues used in the past studies and the empirical review present various findings that results from the methodologies. 2.2THEORETICAL critique OF LITERATUREThe study of economic history provides us with gigantic evidence that an agricultural revolution is a fundamental pre-condition for economic development (Eicher and Witt, 1964, Olusanmi, 1966, Jones and Wolff, 1969). The agricultural sector has the potentials to be the industrial and economic spring board from which a countrys development can take off. Indeed, agricultural activities are usually concent posed in the less developed rural transformation, redistribution, poverty rest and socio-economic development (Stewart, 2000). Agriculture can be advanced beyond its primary function of supplying food and its primary cultural sector has the potential to cast the landscape, guarantee the sustainable management of renewable resources of many rural areas (Humbert, 2000). In fact, through its different spheres of activities at macro and micro levels, the agricultural sector is st castgically positioned to have a higher multiplier effect on any nations quest for socio-economic and industrial development. It is very obvious that a sustainable agricultural growth has been highly instrumental in Brazils rapid rural transformation, the em occasionment of Brazilian peasant and the alleviation of abject poverty. Interestingly, the Nigerian economy like that of Brazil during the first decade after independence could reasonably be described as an agricultural economy because agriculture serves as the engine of growth of the overall economy (Ogen, 2003 231-234). From the stand point of occupational dist ribution and contribution of GDP, agriculture was the leading sector.During this period, Nigeria was the worlds second largest manufacturing business of cocoa, largest exporter of palm kernel and largest producer and exporter of palm oil. Nigeria was also a leading exporter of other commodities such as cotton, groundnut, rubber and hides and skin (Alkali 1977 15-16). The agricultural sector contributed over 60% to the GDP in the 1960s and despite the reliance of the Nigerian peasantfarmers on traditional tools and indigenous farming method, the farmers produce 70% of Nigerias export and 95% of its food needs (Lawal 1997 195). However, the agricultural sector suffered neglect during the hay days of boom in the 1970s. Ever since then, Nigeria has been witnessing extreme poverty. Historically, the root of the crisis in Nigerian economy lies in the neglect of agriculture and the increased dependence on a monoculture economy based on oil. The agricultural sector now accounts for less tha n 5% of Nigerias GDP (Olagboju and Falola 1996 263). It is against this back drop that this paper sets out to draw comparative analysis from the Brazilian experience for come-at-able restitution in Nigeria. Such an approach is particularly feasible given the fact that Nigeria shares so much in common with Brazil in terms of a highly conducive agricultural climate, huge and diverse population as well as the availability of natural resources. 2.2.1MEANING OF ECONOMIC cropAccording to Turrets (1987) the economic growth of a country can be defined in various ways as an increase in gross domestic product, in real GDP or in per capital GDP. It is clear therefore, that the rate of growth of the real GDP country. If we want to determine the growth in Nigeria for example, the rate of growth of its real GDP stands as the nearly appropriate measure. Alternatively, we can also examine the meaning of economic growth through the use of end product possibility curve. A deed possibility curve is used to depict the maximum quantities of two goods or types of goods that can be produced when all the resources of the country are full and efficiently utilized. However, smith (1996) visualised that economic growth results from specialization of labour, application of new technology as well as through international trade. But one important fact to note is that, since economic activities tend to or shift outward, countries will always record a absolute growth rate and sometimes negative, such as inward of countrys production possibility curve (PPC) (Clawer, Graves and Sexton, 1989).Nigerias economy had in some ears of the late1980s and through 1990s recorded some negative growth rate and in fact, still does till date and even beyond. 2.2.2AGRICULTURE AND ECONOMIC GROWTHDevelopment economists in usual and agricultural economists in particular,have focused on how agriculture can best contribute to overall economic growth and modernization. Many early analyst (Fel and Rani, 1954 Jorgensen 1961 Hirschman 1958 Scitovsky 1954 Lewis 1954 Rosentein-rodan 1943), have highlighted agriculture because of its abundance of resources and its ability to transfer surpluses to the more important industrial sector. The conventional approach to the roles of agriculture in economic growth concentrated on agricultures important market-mediated linkages, and they are i. Providing food for the expanding population with higher income. ii. Providing labour for an urbanized industrial work force. iii. Supplying savings for investment in industry.iv. Enlarging markets for industrial output providing export earnings to pay for trade capital goods and v. Providing primary material for agro processing industries (Timer 2002, Delgado et al 1994, Ravis et al 1990, Johnson and Mellor 1961). Rapid agricultural productiveness growth is a prerequisite for the market mediated linkages to be mutually beneficial. Productivity growth that resulted from agriculture has had bulky impacts on fo od supplies and food wrongs and consequent beneficial impacts on food security and poverty reduction (Hazel and Hag blade 1993, Binswanger 1980, Hayami and Herdt 1977, Pinstrup Anderson 1976) Alston et al (1996), posit that because a relatively high proportion of any income gain made by the poor is spent on food, the income effect of research induced supply shift can have major multinational implications, particularly if those shift results from technologies aimed at the poorest producers. Agricultural productivity growth also triggers the generation of non-market mediated linkages between the agricultural sector and the rest of the economy.These includes the indirect contribution of a vibrant agricultural sector to food security and poverty alleviation, safely net and buffer role and the supply of environmental services (FAO, 2004). While agricultures direct private contributions to form households are tangible, easy indirect benefits tend to be over looked in assessing rate of returns. Ignoring the whole range of economic and social contributions of agriculture underestimates the returns to investments in the sector (Valdes and Foster, 2005). Some empirical evidence exists on the exacting relationship between agricultural growth (Valdes and Foster 2005). The transformation of agriculture from itstraditional subsistence roots induced by technical change, to a modernizing agricultural sector is a phenomenon observed crossways the developing world. Concluding, it is clear that agricultural growth has played a historically important role in the process of economic development. Evidence from industrialized countries that are rapidly developing today indicates that agriculture was the engine that contributed to growth in the non-agricultural sectors and to overall economic wellbeing. Economic growth originating in agriculture can have a particular strong impact in reducing poverty and hunger. Increasing employment and income in agriculture stimulates demand for non-agricultural goods and services, thereby providing a get on to non-farm rural income earners as well. 2.2.3AGRICULTURE AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT.The contribution of agriculture to economic development lies in i. Providing more food to the rapidly expanding population increasing the demand for industrial product, and thus necessitating the expansion of secondary and tertiary sectors. ii. It can release workers needed for the production of non-agricultural goods and services. iii. It can provide a source of capital that can be invested in improved productive facilities in the rest of the economy (Timer 2002, Delgado et al 1994, Ravis et al 1996. Johnson and Mellor 1961). A progressive urban industrial economy contributes, in turn, to the rapid development of agriculture by expanding the market for agricultural products by supplying the farm machinery, chemical fertilizers and so on, that raise the level of agricultural technology by expanding productive employment opportunitie s for workers released from agriculture by technological change and by making possible improvements in the quality of rural life by raising standards of consumption both in urban and rural areas (Binswanger, 1980). A rise in rural purchasing power, as a result of the increased agricultural surplus, is a great stimulus to industrial development. The market for construct goods is very small in an underdeveloped country where the peasant farm labourers and their families, comprising typically two goods in addition to whatever they need.There is lack of real purchasing power thus reflecting the low productivity in agriculture. The basic problem thus is low investment return caused by small size of the market. Increased ruralpurchasing power caused by expansion of agricultural output and productivity will tend to raise the demand for manufactured goods and extend the size of the market. This will lead to the expansion of the industrial sector (Lewis, 1954). Moreover, the demand for such inputs as fertilizers, tractors, collapse tools, implements, irrigational facilities in the agricultural sectors will all lead to the greater expansions of the agricultural sector. Besides, the means of transport and communications will expand to urban areas and manufactured goods to the rural areas. The long run effects of the expansion of the secondary and tertiary sectors will be towards higher profits in them whether they are operated in the private or the ordinary sector. These profits will tend to increase the rate of capital formation through their re-investment. That is what Kuznets calls the market contributions of agriculture when it trades with other sectors of the economy. Underdeveloped countries for the most part specialize in the production of a few agricultural goods for export.As output and productivity of the exportable goods expand, their exports increase and results in larger foreign exchange earnings. Thus agricultural surplus leads to capital formation when capital goods are imported with this foreign exchange. As development gains momentum due to industrialization, the proportion of agricultural export in the countrys total exports is likely to fall as they are needed in large quantities for domestic production of imported articles. Such articles are import substitutes and conserve foreign exchange. Similarly, increased marketed surplus of food grains leads to a net saving of foreign exchange, as the economy tries to achieve the goal of self-sufficiency in food production. Larger productions of food and export crops do not only conserve and earn foreign exchange, but also leads to expansion of the other sectors of the economy. Foreign exchange earnings can be used to build talent of other industries and help the establishment of new industries by importing scare raw materials, machines, capital equipment and technical know-how. Kuznets calls it the product contribution of agriculture which first argues about the growth of net output of the economy and the growth of per capita output. An underdeveloped needs large amounts of capital to finance expansion of the infrastructure and for the development of basic and heavy industries. In the early stages of development, capital can be provided by increasing the marketable surplus from the rural sector without reducingconsumption levels from population.According to Johnson and Mellor (1961) an increase in agricultural productivity implies some conspiracy of capital formation when it is bring down on the farm and employed in construction works. But the possibility of utilizing unskilled surplus form labour on capital project requiring skilled labour is limited. The second possibility of increasing capital formation through reduce agricultural prices is also not feasible in the early stages of development when the rise in price is not feasible. Reduction in agricultural prices is not feasible. Reduction in agricultural prices is possible in the long run but democrati c countries may not be able to follow this reasoning for political reasons. A more practicable solution is to stabilize the prices in farm products. The third possibility of increasing farm receipts is perhaps the best way for capital formation. This can be done by mobilizing increased farm incomes through agricultural income tax, land registration charges, naturalize fees, for providing agricultural technical services and other types of fees that cover all or part of the farm population. But political and institutional problems makes it difficult to translate the increased potential for saving and capital accumulation, made possible by increased agricultural productivity, into an actual increase in investment in underdeveloped countries. According to Wald, special assessments have had their widest application in the joined States.In view of the fact that they are specially designed for financing such developed projects as irrigation works, flood control system and certain classes of roads, all of which are extremely important for underdeveloped countries like India that the penalties of too light taxation on agriculture are a stagnating farm sector, a financially starved public sector and a retarded rate of economic growth in the country as a whole (Wald, 1995). Thus countries were agriculture dominates, the taxation of agriculture in one form or another is essential for mobilizing agricultural surplus in order to accelerate economic development. Kuznets calls it the factor of contribution when there is a transfer of resources to the other sectors, these resources to the other sectors, these resources being productive factors. Agriculture also expands and diversifies employment opportunities in rural areas. As agricultures productivity and farm income increases, non-farm rural employment expands and diversifies.Landless and marginal farmers are primarily engaged innon-agricultural pursuits which includes the manufacturers of textile, furniture, tools, handic raft, leather and metal processing, marketing, transport, repair work, construction of houses and other buildings, education, euphony and other services, as these activities satisfy local demand. Lastly, increase in rural incomes as a result of the agricultural surplus tends to improve rural welfare. tike starts consuming more food peculiarly of a higher nutritional value in the form of superior quality cereals, eggs, ghee, milk, fruits etc. They build bust houses fitted with modern amenities like electricity, furniture, radio, fan etc. provide themselves with bicycles, motorcycles, watches, readymade garments, shoe etc. they also receive direct satisfaction from such services such as schools, health centres, irrigation, banking, transport and communication facilities. Thus increased agricultural surplus has the effect of raising the standards of living of the mass of rural people.2.2.4NIGERIAN ECONOMIC milieuNigeria was and is still basically an agricultural country despite th e fact that there is significant growth in the other sector of the economy since her independence in 1960. Agriculture remains the single largest sector of the economy since it provides employment to a large segment of the work force and constituting the main stay of Nigerias rural population. Since 1985, the percentage of gross domestic product attributable to agriculture has been kept up(p) about 31%, well ahead of mining and quarrying, which includes crude petroleum and gas as well as whole sale and retail trade, which are also the other two major contributors to GDP in Nigeria. Before 1970, the agricultural sector has enjoyed a relatively abundant supply of farm labour and cultivable land for agriculture was able to respond quite steadily to a rising demand. An expansion of land under cultivation and increased absorption of rural labour constituted a ready means for output expansion. However, the 1970s oil boom saw a high rate of rural-urban population migrating, which resulted into supply demand imbalance in the food subsector, piece traditional export declined sharply in both absolute and relative terms.From 1970, Nigerias agriculture has been characterized by excess demand over supply due to high population growth rate, stagnant declining economic growth, high rate of globalization, increased demand foragricultural raw materials by an expanding industrial sector and the rising per capita income which is stimulated by an oil export revenue boom. The decline in production of tradable has raised serious domestic and extraneous balancing problems. The output of domestic inputs using agro-allied firms is labored by output fluctuation, which reduces the size of export revenues and market shares. This adversely affects the balance of payment. The agricultural sector was estimated to decline at an annual average of 0.43% between 1970 and 1985 while the periods between 1975 and 1978 recorded the highest level of decline of 7.88%. The agricultural export crop s ub-sectors contribution to the total foreign earnings declined from an average of 58% in the 1960s to only 5.2% between 1971 and 1985. Indeed, by 1980, Nigeria had become a net importer of food and most of its tradable export crops had either disappeared from the export list or merely maintained an insignificant presence. As it were, the agricultural export sub-sector became increasingly unable to meet the raw material needs to the primarily processing industries and furthermore, inflationary pressure characterized the economy, general degeneration of rural life and rural urban migration.Notwithstanding, the observed agricultural decline, agricultural policy appeared to have been more active in the 1970s than in the 1960s. In the formal period, the government implanted successful programme like National Agricultural Food Production course of study (NAFP), Operation Feed the Nation (OFN) and green revolution programme, also banks assisted Agricultural Development Programme (ADP). Go vernment also tried to improve marketing system for agricultural export crops by reforming the marketing board system in 1973, 1976 and 1977. Agricultural sector did not improve as a result there was introduction of geomorphological Adjustment Programme ( jester) in 1986, which necessitated the deregulation of exchange rates and abolition of marketing board system. 2.2.5AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION DURING THE STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMME (SAP) One of the most important debates the geomorphologic alteration programme (SAP) has centred on the impact of the programme on agricultural sector. It was anticipated that the measures adopted under this programme will set down about increased domestic production of food and eventual elimination of food import, increase supply of manufacturing industries of agricultural raw materials such as cotton, cocoa, oil palm, rubber etc. was also anticipated (Obadan and Egbase, 1992).Also, thediversification of export base of the economy would be enhanc ed with the increase in the agricultural prices and boom in the sector, production was expected to translate into rising rural employment, income and standard of living. Therefore, the agricultural production will be viewed from two perspectives, which is agricultural food production during SAP and agricultural export during SAP. 2.2.6AGRICULTURAL FOOD PRODUCTION DURING SAPFollowing the introduction of SAP in 1986, some writers have claimed that food production have been on the increasing sides. Since one of the expectations of complimenting this programme is to bring food and to make sure that the importation of food is eradicated. Iwayemi in 1994 found out that one of the positive developments in recent years is a merging trend of upward turn in the production of agricultural tradable (rice, soya beans and maize) and of the non-traded food category and cassava has performed impressively. Furthermore, it was notice that immediately after the introduction of SAP, there were sharp i ncrease in the prices of staples such as yam, cassava, rice, maize, etc. for instance the average market retail price in Kwara state lift from 450 per tonne to 560 per tonne in 1986 and 686 per tonne in 1986. Also, the average market price of rice in Kaduna state rose from 1500 in 1985 to 1700 and 2213 in 1992.These increases in the price of staples are adduced to high inflationary pressures resulting from SAP. Also Edgbai (1988)argued that the devaluation of the Naira following the advent of the SAP lead to spectacular increase in the prices of most agricultural inputs, implements and machinery. The percentage price increase of these inputs between 1985, the last pre-SAP years ranges between 50% and 70% using official prices subsequently there have indeed been increases in the producer prices of maize development. Finally, Iwayemi (1994) concluded that the most pressing problem in the sector is the lack of adequate production capacity to meet domestic food requirement of rapidly raising large population. 2.2.7AGRICULTURAL EXPORT DURING SAPThe major aim of introducing SAP was to improve the agricultural export through the depreciation of the countrys currency. However, different researches hold different opinions concerning this. For instance, Obadan (1993) found out that SAP policy of exchange rate adjustment was animportant factor that positively affected supply of rubber and suggested that real depreciation of the naira for example, tends to stimulate rubber farmers to increase supply of export, thus talking advantage of the improved international competitiveness. In modern development, with the exception of rubber, the export elasticity of cocoa, palm kernel and processed or semi processed product with follow to change in exchange in Nigeria was mostly of low order even in the long run. Hence, Obadan and Egbase (1992) concluded that export base production activities especially agriculture, have benefited from the SAP incentive arising particularly from naira to depreciation and trade liberalization. Thus, quantity of natural rubber exported rose from 32000 in 1985 to 108600 in 1991, changes in naira exchange rate significantly affected natural rubber supply under SAP.In contrast, Ajilim and Agba, (1986) claimed that there is over whelming evidence that SAP has very slim prospect for exhilarating non-oil export e.g. cocoa. Also Dayo, (1996) discovered that the low elasticity estimate was due to limited volume of agricultural export earning in response to devaluation of the naira. Also, Ajayi (1988) and Osagie (1985) posit In that in Nigeria, exchange rate devaluation is stagnant and have no significant effect on the external trade balance because of low prices elasticity generally associated with the excess import and export demand functions. In other words Balogun (1987) estimated agricultural export function with exchange export has the redress and the result showed deadness of aggregate agricultural export to exchange rate, p rice and imported and agricultural input. He thus, concluded that the agricultural sector, which is dominated by smaller hold farming, is insulated from external trade variables or shocks. Finally, Obadan and Egbase (1992) argued that export base production activity, especially agriculture, have benefited from SAP incentives arising particularly from naira depreciation and trade liberalization, for example in response to the price and exchange liberalization, the quantity of natural exported rose from 32000tonnes in 1985 to 33000 in 1986 and 108800 in 1991 changes in naira exchange rate significantly affected natural rubber supply under SAP.However Obadan (1993) argued that the main objective of SAP has not been realized even though that the number of agricultural export have increase, the value is still in significant. 2.2.8THE EFFECT OF SAP AND THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. Warder (1995) analysedthe economic and political development on Nigerias agricultural se ctor including the application of the structural adjustment programme (SAP). He discovered that with the application of SAP, that the country was able to orient her agricultural production toward the production and exportation of cash crops while Husia and Farugee (1994) found out that for any developing country like Nigeria to experience the turn-around in our country, the country should establish and maintain macro-economic stability, eliminate discrimination against agriculture and take measures to swallow anti export bias. Furthermore, Obadan (1994) declared that the agricultural sector during SAP was able to reverse negative growth of the economy during the early 1980s, because of more favourable more weather conditions and adoption of a floating exchange rate system which favoured agriculture deregulation of agricultural prices and the priority according to the implementation of the key public sector agricultural programs.Stanley (1987) added that SAP policy consisted of meas ures that are aim at achieving viability in the medium term balance of payment why the level and rate of growth of economy activity was maintained at the optimal level of operation. In addition Ojo (1988) stated that the effect of SAP on agricultural and rural development has brought about an increase in agricultural production and there was an improvement in rural development.He however, noted that the fundamental problems of Nigeria agriculture still persist. In contrast, since the theoretical bases of SAP is based on the invisible hand or market mechanism, Obadan and Ekuarhare (1993) opined that a Pareto system which required a free market economy may not be idea for a developing or even a developed country. This is because the market mechanism may faster efficiency but not equity. The price mechanism which is concerned with state resources allocation undermines economic growth and development in developing countries. consequently, without governments intervention in economic act ivities, the market leads to misallocation of present and future resource or at least to one which may not be in long run in the best interests of the society (Torado 1977, 164 quoted in Obadan and Ekuarhare 1993).Finally, Obadan and Ekuarhare opined further that the fiscal monetary exchange policy mix contained in SAP is inter-consistent with economic recovery from a fadeout (from which the country has been battling due to external shock and the crisis of accumulation within the domestic bourgeoisie). Recoveryfrom this cyclical downturn characterized by below capacity nation production would require an increase in government expenditure to provide greater employment and increased social benefit. In other words, the deflation an economy coupled with deregulation and liberalization will not lead to an upturn of the economy. Therefore,Obadan (1993) discovered that the main objective of SAP has not been realized even though the number of non-oil manufactured agricultural export items have increased the value and is still insignificant. For instance, exchange in-flow from non-oil exports reduce from $557million in 1985(per SAP) to $538 million in 1987. It increased to $613 million in 1988 but reduced drastically to $406million in 1990 and by 1992 the sector only contributed 3.6% of the nations foreign exchange.The value of agricultural export which stood at an average of 408.7 million to buzz off with declining sharply to 270.8 million in 1981-1985, owing largely to decline in cash crop producers. During SAP, export earnings grew to 1822.9 million in 1986-1990 for primary agricultural commodities such as tubers, fruits and spices coming on board. In addition, export of manufacturers and semi manufacturers of agricultural products which earned only 37.2 million in 1891-1985 recorded the sum of 214.9 million in 1986-1990 as Nigeria became exporter of textile, soap, detergent, beer, beverages and skin in addition to cocoa products. Emmanuel (2002) viewed productiv ity as the wealth of a nation. According to him, Nigeria is generously endowed with abundant natural resources. He further argued that if this enormous resources base is well managed, through increased productivity, the wealth of the nation is bound to increase. He argued that a farmer plants a seed and reaps several harvesting period, productivity has increased and the wealth of a nation has increased too. The mercantilists (18th century) argued that productivity in the agricultural sector contributed the least to the economic growth. They tell that it only promoted domestic trade and did not fore see mechanization and modernization that took over manual labour in the agricultural sector, as agricultural commodities are not only traded domestically but exported to other countries. 2.2.9AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND EXPORTThe breakdown of agricultural production into its component parts reveals the problems during 1985 period. While food production recorded only a marginalincrease ex port crop production declined sharply. The inadequate domestic food production is reflected in Nigerias massive food imports, especially in the 1970s to argument domestic supply. The supply in the production of some of Nigerias cultural export commodities was most worrisome for instance, Nigeria that was ranked as the world leading producer and exporter of palm oil in the 1960s had become the net importer of this good in the mid-70s. Similarly, Nigerias cocoa production, which r each(prenominal)ed its peak of 309000 tonnes in 1970-71, fell drastically to 160000 tonnes in 1985. The sharp turn down in the gross value terms of trade in agriculture was equally serious. The ratio of agricultural exports to food imports which stood at 143% in 1970-1975 suffered significant deterioration and reached the lowest at 38% by 1976-1982. The performance of agriculture during the review period was underdetermined mainly by its neglect coupled with a chain of distributive created by the oil boom. 2 .3THE METHODOLOGICAL REVIEW OF LITERATUREseveral(prenominal) policies as well as policy instruments have been put to place over the year by successive government in Nigeria. Some had positive effect while the others had negative effects. Olayami (1985) identified tether distinct agricultural policy era under which the agricultural sector developed for the past three decades, these includes the 1960-1969 era, the 1970-1985 eras. These policies were targeted at improving the performance of the sector during this period. A review of these policies would be discussed Agricultural policy during these periods was limited to marketing and pricing for which the marketing board was established. Actually, at the outbreak of World War 2 in 1939, government owned marketing boards were setup in British, West Africa to assure orderly marketing and to shelter British supplies of raw materials (Adegbola and Akinbode, 1986). Government was involved in agricultural research and extension of service s but the issue of self-sufficiency in agriculture for food and raw materials was not pursued. Also investment in agriculture with foremosts to improve employment was left to the initiative in farming. During this period, there was decentralised approach to agriculture with initiatives being left to the regions and the states while the federal government played a supportive role. Regional government were executing abhor policies, programme andprojects. There was no institutional federal responsibility for agriculture and there were no specific agricultural sector objectives. There were a number of policies and programme and some of them are discussed below 2.3.1AGRICULTURAL MARKETING POLICYThe agricultural marketing board system was used extensively in marketing agricultural products during this period. The system started with the establishment of a commodity marketing board in 1947 and for groundnut, palm produce and cotton in 1949. In 1954, the board became regionalized with one multi commodity marketing board for each of the regions, and later for each of the states. The board accumulated huge trading surpluses which were used to mobilize substantial savings for the government. These surpluses were generated at the expense of the stability of farmers income. The farmers income was kept low and with increasing risk on the farm declining world commodity prices of the mid 60s, there was an incentive for peasant increase production (Adubi, 1966). 2.3.2AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION PROJECTSThe regional government of the east and western Nigeria stared this project and then later the north, to encourage the development of these crops. There financed from surpluses of the marketing boards. This was before the creation state, the UNIX oil palm plantation (now in Rivers and Cross Rivers), the Hushin rubber estates (now in Ogun state), and the upper Ogun cattle ranches etc. 2.3.3FARM SETTLEMENT SCHEMEIn the early 1960s the regional government assisted school leavers who were willing to go into agriculture establishment farm settlement scheme in places like Edo, Ilora, Ikenne, Ibadan and so on. The farm settlement were setup as modeling for other farmers who often look up practises being carried out by settlers and had easy access to farm equipment and services. However, due to non-ownership pattern of the scheme, farm and house power supply problems and the limited individuals holdings, most settlers were not committed. The owned land outside the greater settlement and mainly used the opportunity to obtain services through membership of a settlement scheme (Adegbola and Akinbode, 1986) 2.3.41970-1985 ERA (PERIOD OF MAXIMUMGOVERNMENT INTERVENSION) Agricultural production started to decline towards the end of the decades of 1960s. Export crops outputs were stagnating while export volumes begin to decrease, and there was evidence of food shortages in the country. The 1963 GDP figures for example shows that agriculture crops, livestock, fi shing and forestry accounted for 64% of total GDP and the average for 1960s decade estimated at 56%. Similarly, in the export sector, the percentage of agricultural produce was declining (Adubi, 1966).The problem of agricultural production decline was ascribed partly to the civil war and partly to the declining commodity process in the world market and the incentive to production due to taxation of the commodity board. There was therefore greater involvement of the government in agriculture. The expenditure of government and therefore for its investment increase in the sector specific sector emphasis of policy was on accelerating production of the staple food crops and some export crops. There was a fundamental shift in the strategy compared with the decade of 1960s and the federal government became more involved in the sector.The strategy taken, led to the launching of several special programme and projects. Also specialised in institutions were setup to ensure smooth implementatio n of the agricultural policies the period witnessed many macroeconomic and sector specific policies, which directly or indirectly affects agricultural production. Many of the macroeconomic policies of the government had wide spread effect on agriculture, though not targeted at the agricultural sector, until there are some programme which includes marketing policy, input supply and distribution policy and input subvention policy. Agricultural Development forecasts (ADPs) and River Basin Development Authority (RBDA) were also established to promote agricultural developments. 2.3.5THE 1985-1999 ERA (SAP AND POST SAP PERIOD)With the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) in 1986, government admitted the failure of past policies to significantly improve the economy and reverse the declining trend of production in the agricultural sector. The SAP relied most especially on the agricultural sector to achieve the objectives of its far reaching refunds on diversification of export and adjust ment of the consumption structure of the economy. The philosophy of SAP for the agricultural sector was that only the interplay of the marketforces could foster efficiency in the sector. The government was therefore expected to play minimal role for private sector initiative in the sector. Many of the policy measure adopted in SAP and macro in nature and those that affect agriculture also fall directly into fiscal, monetary, trade and exchange rate policies as well as institutional policy refunds. Many institutions such as National directorate of Employment (NDE), Directorate of Food, Roads and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI), National Agricultural Insurance Company (NAIC), National Land Development Authority (NALDA) were established to assist new farmers and promote agriculture development in the rural areas. Essentially, these policies and programme were implemented until 1999. The changes in the government during the review period 1985-1999 also led to modifications of some of the policies above, which essentially formed the major focus of government on agricultural development. 2.3.6THE NEW MILLENNIUM AGRICULTURAL POLICIES (1999-2003)At the inception of the new democratic administration in whitethorn 1999 and shortly before then, several institutional changes were made in order to realize the sectors objectives and in line with its belief that agricultural and rural development are sine que non for improved economy recovery (Olamola, 2003) these includes the relocation of department of cooperatives. Division of the ministry of Water Resources to the ministry of agriculture all before 1999, the scrapping of the erst while National Agricultural Land Development Department, the scrapping of the Federal Agriculture Coordinating Unit (FACU) and the Agricultural Project Monitoring and Evaluating Unit (APMEU) and the setting up of Project Co-ordination Unit (PCU) and the stream lining institution for agricultural credit delivery with the emergency of the Nigerian A gricultural Co-operative and Rural Development Bank (NACRDB) and the peoples bank and the summation of the Family Economic Advancement Programme (FEAP). New institutions are also evolving to enable the Nigerian agricultural sectors respond to the imperative of the emerging global economic order. The new agricultural policy has a clear statement of objectives amid the structural transformation necessary for the overall socio-economic development of the country as well as the improvement in the quality of life of Nigeria.This objective reflects the current policy recognition of agriculture as a vital sector under the poverty reductionprogramme (FMARD, 2003). The government also seeks to pursue the following specific objectives i. Attainment of self-sufficiency in basic food commodities with particular reference to those which consume enormous shares of Nigerians foreign exchange and for which the country has comparative advantage in local production. ii. Increase in production and p rocessing of exportable commodities with a view to increase their foreign exchange earning capacity and further diversifying the countrys export base and source of foreign exchange earnings. iii. Increase in production of agricultural raw materials to meet the growth of an expanding industrial sector. iv. Modernization of agricultural production, processing, storage and distribution through the infusion of improved technologies and management so that agriculture can be more responsive to the demands of other sectors of the Nigerian economy. v. Creation of more agricultural and rural employment opportunities to increase income of farmers and rural dwellers, productivity absorbed and increasing labour force in the nation.These objectives are properly in agreement with the whole concept of agricultural sustainability and inter-linkage between agriculture and each of the relevant sectors of the economy. As it is usual with the specification of agricultural policy objectives from time im memorial, these objectives are clearly presented and are basically consistent with the overall strategy of diversifying the productive base of the economy for an increased foreign exchange generation, higher level of employment and productivity and improved economy recovery. Specification of policy objectives had been the most good accomplished component of agricultural policy formulation in particular and development planning experience in the country in general. It is therefore not surprising that the specified objectives in the new policy document are indeed comprehensive and quite appropriate. 2.4POLICY EVALUATIONIt might be difficult to evaluate all the policies objectively given the space and the focus. However, evidence from some authors (Olayemi 1995, Olamola 1998, Garb 1998) has indicated minimal positive impact of these policies. Also, the performance of the sector is far from being fully satisfactory. The evidence of these is the decaying rural infrastructure, decline do mestic and foreign investment in agriculture. In fact theincreasing withdrawal of manufacturing companies from their backward integrated agricultural ventures has reduced investment in the sector considerably. Input supply and distribution have been inefficient and most agricultural institutions are ineffective. The evidence of ineffectiveness is the scrapping in the year 2000 of some of the institutions established for agricultural production, a critical examination of the policies and there implementation over the years to show policy instability. This problem is not mazed with the political instability in the country. Between 1979 and 1999, the country has passed through five military and civilian regimes. In between the minister of agriculture at the federal level and the various commissioners for agriculture at the state level were changed several times on the average of one per two years. Several policy measures were stated and changed without sufficient rating for policy eff ect or result. 2.4.1POLICY INCONSISTENCIES.With respect to agricultural production, the sector has passed through several periods of production and unbridled opening up for competition. It has also passed through eras of no government and less government involvement in direct agricultural production. The consistencies of policy transparency, leads to poor implementation and mismanagement of policy instruments. 2.5EMPERICAL REVIEWOji-Okoro (2011) investigate the contribution of agricultural sector on the Nigerian economic development and reveal that foreign direct investment on agriculture contribute the most (56.43), this means that for every unit of change in FDI on agriculture there is a corresponding change of 56.43 unit in GDP in Nigeria. Suleiman and Aminu (2010) conducted research on the contribution of agriculture, petroleum and manufacturing sector of the Nigerian economy and found out that agricultural sector is contributing higher than both petroleum and manufacturing sect ors. The paper reveals that agriculture is contributing 1.7978 units to GDP while petroleum is contributing 1.14 units to GDP which is less than the contribution of agriculture. Awe and Ajayi (2009) conducted research on the diversification of the significant when the log of revenue from agriculture was tested on the revenue from agriculture. About 60 percent of the movement could beexplained in the relationship. The findings from the study further revealed that dynamic relationship exists between the revenue from the non-oil sector economic development.Ekpo and Umoh (2012) revealed that the contribution of agriculture to GDP, which was 63 percent in 1960, declined to 34 percent in 1988, not because the industrial sector increased its share but due to neglect of agriculture sector. It was therefore not surprising that by 1975, the economy had become a net importer of basic food items. The apparent increase in industry and manufacturing from 1978 to 1988 was due to activities in the mining sub-sector, especially petroleum. Muhammad and (2006) conducted study on production of agriculture in Nigeria and revealed that the negative coefficient of the value (-0.07) of the food imports indicates that as food import increases, domestic agricultural production decreases. This might be due to the fact that food importation exposes the local farmers to unfair competition by foreign producers who usually take advantage of economies of scale in production due to their access to better production technology. The positive coefficient (286.91) of the GDP growth rate indicates that increase in the GDP also moves domestic agricultural production in the same direction. This shows that increased domestic economic activity has the impact of increasing the domestic agricultural production.This may be due to the fact that most economic activity in the country is related to agriculture. The result also shows that population increases has been a major contribution to domestic agricult ural production in Nigeria with the coefficient (18424.73). This may be due to the fact that majority of the populace are engaged in agriculture, meaning more hand on the farm as population increases. The coefficient of consumer price indicant was positive (8.49). This shows that as consumer price increases domestic agricultural production also increases, meaning that domestic agricultural production is positively related to increase in consumer prices. This may be due to the fact that increase in price stimulates supply on the farmers side leading to more production of food. More agro-processing activities must therefore be embarked upon in order that farmers may be able to dispose of their produce at fairly reasonable prices. The result of the coefficient (0.04) of government expenditure was positive, that is domestic agricultural production is positively related to increase in government expenditure, meaning that as government expends more on agriculture, domesticagricultural pr oduction also increases. The reason why it was not significant might be due to the fact that government has not been put so much on agriculture over the years.